全文中英对照约2.3万字，阅读时间约23分钟。

This article aims to summarize the background of well-known and not so well-known Soviet rocket engines, the history of their development, their main characteristics, and the rockets they flew on.

本文旨在总结著名的和不太著名的苏联火箭发动机的背景、发展历史、主要特点，以及参与飞行过的火箭。

整个苏联火箭发动机家族树（来源：每日宇航员）

总目录可在【上篇】文章中看到，本篇将介绍：

4、Yangel’s Hypergolic Rockets 

杨格尔的自燃型火箭

虽然R-7正在完成许多重要任务的路上，但苏联希望有更多的选择。这是因为R-7的操作窗口相对较窄，因为它使用液氧作为氧化剂。例如，格鲁什科倾向于使用可储存的推进剂。这将扩大火箭在加注燃料时的操作窗口。事实上，当他试图扩大RD-105发动机的规模时，他也在研究用硝酸而不是液氧作为氧化剂的发动机。

RD-12 AND R-14 ROCKETS

RD-12 和 R-14 火箭

RD-214, RD-215, RD-216 引擎

Since it was very haRD to have stable combustion with nitric acid, Glushko decided to scale down the combustion chamber and create multiple nozzles. He did that while working on the RD-211 engine. From there, Glushko started working on the RD-200 series of engines that first saw use on the R-12 and R-14 rockets. The development of these medium-range ballistic missiles was led by Mikhail Yangel (OKB-586, Ukraine). The R-12 rockets played a role in the Cuban missile crisis as they were the rockets deployed to hit the mainland United States. Also, the R-12 and R-14 rockets would go on to become the second orbital rocket family from the Soviet Union. In fact, the R-12 was studied to become the basis of an orbital launch vehicle as early as 1956.

由于用硝酸很难有稳定的燃烧，格鲁什科决定缩小燃烧室的规模并制造多个喷嘴。他在研究RD-211发动机时做到了这一点。从那时起，格鲁什科开始研究RD-200系列发动机，这些发动机首先在R-12和R-14火箭上使用。这些中程弹道导弹的开发是由米哈伊尔-杨格尔（OKB-586，乌克兰）领导的。R-12火箭在古巴导弹危机中发挥了作用，因为它们是被部署到美国本土的火箭。另外，R-12和R-14火箭将成为苏联的第二个轨道火箭家族。事实上，早在1956年，R-12就被研究为轨道运载火箭的基础。

R-12(来源：ROSCOSMOS)

The R-12 rocket featured a spin-off of the RD-107 – the RD-214. This engine still worked on the H2O2 gas generator. However, unlike the RD-107, it ran on nitric acid and kerosene.

For the R-14 rocket, Yangel created an upgraded version of the RD-214, called the RD-215. To make this engine, he split up the four chambers into a pair of dual-chambered engines. As a result, the upgraded RD-215 flew in pairs, which was called the RD-216. Therefore, the RD-216 is just two dual-chambered RD-215s.

R-12火箭的特点是RD-107的衍生品--RD-214。这个发动机仍然在H2O2气体发生器上工作。然而，与RD-107不同的是，它使用硝酸和煤油。

对于R-14火箭，杨格尔创造了一个RD-214的升级版，称为RD-215。为了制造这种发动机，他把四个腔体分成一对双腔体的发动机。结果，升级后的RD-215成对飞行，这被称为RD-216。因此，RD-216只是两个双室的RD-215。 

RD-214、RD-215、RD-216(Credit: Caspar Stanley)

KOSMOS LAUNCHERS

宇宙发射器

RD-119 引擎

The R-12 and R-14 rockets became the basis for the orbital Kosmos launchers. The Kosmos 1, 2, 3, 3M, and the K65M-RB5 launched 625 times with about 90% success rate overall.

To make an orbital launch vehicle from this small rocket, it needed a very efficient engine for the second stage. This is when Glushko decided to tweak the RD-109 and put a much larger expansion ratio nozzle on it to increase its efficiency in space. The new engine was called the RD-119.

R-12和R-14火箭成为宇宙号轨道发射器的基础。宇宙号1、2、3、3M和K65M-RB5发射了625次，总体成功率约为90%。

为了用这种小型火箭制造一个轨道运载工具，它需要一个非常高效的第二级发动机。这时格鲁什科决定对RD-109进行调整，给它装上一个更大的膨胀比喷嘴，以提高它在太空中的效率。新的发动机被称为RD-119。

RD-119(Credit: Caspar Stanley)

For the steering control of the rocket, the engineers did not use vernier engines or the engine’s gimbaling. Instead, they took the exhaust from the gas generator and directed them through four fixed pipes. Then, an electronically-driven gas distribution system would change how much exhaust flew to these pipes in oRDer to provide steering control. The exhaust from the gas generator consisted of decomposed fuel, not decomposed oxidizer like most other engines tended to use. As a result, this idea helped them to reach an impressive ISP of 352 s in a vacuum.

对于火箭的转向控制，工程师们没有使用游标发动机或发动机的万向节。相反，他们把气体发生器的废气，通过四个固定的管道引向它们。然后，一个电子驱动的气体分配系统将改变有多少废气飞向这些管道，以提供转向控制。来自气体发生器的废气由分解的燃料组成，而不是像大多数其他发动机倾向于使用的分解的氧化剂。结果，这个想法帮助他们在真空中达到了令人印象深刻的352秒的ISP。

RD-16 ROCKET

RD-16火箭

RD-217, RD-218, RD-219 引擎

Seeing the success of the R-12 and R-14, it was time to develop a more capable rocket that could serve as a powerful intercontinental ballistic missile. The rocket Yangel developed for this task was the R-16. The RD-218 engine, which was three dual-chambered RD-217s, powered the first stage of this rocket. Because these engines had fixed nozzles, the RD-218 worked in pair with a four-chambered steering engine, RD-68, much like the vernier engines on the RD-107/108. The RD-218 used AK27I mixture as propellant, which consisted of 73% nitric acid / 27% nitrogen tetroxide mixture and an iodine inhibitor as an anti-corrosive agent.

看到R-12和R-14的成功，是时候开发一种更有能力的火箭了，它可以作为一种强大的洲际弹道导弹。杨格尔为这个任务开发的火箭是R-16。RD-218发动机，即三个双室的RD-217，为该火箭的第一级提供动力。因为这些发动机有固定的喷嘴，所以RD-218与四室的转向发动机RD-68配对工作，很像RD-107/108上的游标发动机。RD-218使用AK27I混合物作为推进剂，其中包括73%的硝酸/27%的四氧化二氮混合物和作为防腐蚀剂的碘抑制剂。

RD-217、RD-218、RD-219(Credit: Caspar Stanley)

Then, a second stage featured the RD-219 engine, which was a derivative of the RD-217. In addition, it was slightly more optimized for a vacuum and had its own quad-chambered steering engine, the RD-69.

然后，第二级采用RD-219发动机，它是RD-217的衍生产品。此外，它对真空环境稍作优化，并有自己的四腔转向发动机，即RD-69。

Nedelin disaster

尼德林灾难

Unfortunately, the first attempt of launching the R-16 was a disaster, known as the Nedelin catastrophe. Nedelin was the head of the R-16 development program. This accident happened on October 24, 1960, at the Baikonur Cosmodrome. While being tested before launch, the engine on the second stage started to fire, which detonated the first stage fuel tanks. This was followed by a massive explosion and the disaster left at least 90 people dead at the launch pad.

不幸的是，发射R-16的第一次尝试是一场灾难，被称为尼德林灾难。尼德林是R-16发展计划的负责人。这次事故发生在1960年10月24日，在拜科努尔航天发射场。在发射前的测试中，第二级的发动机开始起火，引爆了第一级的燃料箱。随后发生了巨大的爆炸，这场灾难造成发射台上至少90人死亡。

一架R-16和它的发动机舱与RD-218发动机(来源: ROSCOSMOS)

Ironically, smoking a cigarette saved someone’s life in this accident. It was chief designer Yangel who left the launch pad to go smoke since smoking next to a fully fueled rocket was prohibited. After this rough start, the R-16 went on to prove to be a formidable weapon and Yangel started designing an even bigger rocket.

具有讽刺意味的是，在这次事故中，抽烟救了某人的命。是总设计师杨格尔离开发射台去抽烟，因为在一个充满燃料的火箭旁边抽烟是被禁止的。在这个艰难的开始之后，R-16继续被证明是一种可怕的武器，杨格开始设计更大的火箭。

升空时的R-16(来源：ROSCOSMOS)

RD-36 ROCKET

RD-36 火箭

RD-251, RD-252 引擎

The R-36 has also been known by another name, the Dnepr. This happens to be the missile that Elon Musk originally tried to purchase from Russia when he wanted to send a payload to Mars. Unlike its predecessor, the R-36 used nitrogen tetroxide (N2O4) instead of nitric acid as an oxidizer. N2O4 is a less corrosive alternative for a storable oxidizer, along with UDMH it became a staple of hypergolic rockets.

RD-251, RD-252

R-36也有另一个名字，即Dnepr。这恰好是埃隆-马斯克最初试图从俄罗斯购买的导弹，当时他想把有效载荷送往火星。与它的前身不同，R-36使用四氧化二氮（N2O4）而不是硝酸作为氧化剂。N2O4是一种腐蚀性较小的可储存氧化剂的替代品，与UDMH一起成为自燃型火箭的主力。

RD-250、RD-251、RD-252(Credit: Caspar Stanley)

The RD-251 engine that they developed was an upgraded and evolved version of the RD-219. This engine remained open cycle, however, it had better materials that were less corrosion-prone. In addition, it used solid powder chargers to spin up the turbo pumps and there were pyrotechnic valves on the shut off valves aiding in more reliable shut downs. Similar to the RD-218, the RD-251 consisted of a cluster of three dual-chambered RD-250s.

他们开发的RD-251发动机是RD-219的升级和进化版。这款发动机仍然是开式循环，但是，它有更好的材料，不那么容易腐蚀。此外，它使用固体粉末充电机来旋转涡轮泵，并且在关闭阀上有烟火阀，有助于更可靠的关闭。与RD-218类似，RD-251由三个双室的RD-250组成的集群。

The second stage of the R-36 featured a vacuum optimized version, the RD-252. Compared to its predecessor (the RD-219), the RD-252 could achieve 26 s better ISP, despite being relatively the same mass.

R-36的第二级有一个真空优化版本，即RD-252。与其前身（RD-219）相比，尽管质量相对相同，但RD-252可以达到+26秒的更佳ISP。

一个RD-252及其真空优化气体发生器的排气管出口(来源：ROSCOSMOS)

TSYKLON LAUNCHERS

沙克龙发射器

RD-861 引擎

The R-36 became the basis for the Tsyklon-2 launch vehicle. The Tsyklon-2 was a two-stage rocket that made 106 flights with only 2 failures between 1969 and 1999, which makes it one of the most reliable rockets ever made.

R-36成为Tsyklon-2运载火箭的基础。Tsyklon-2是一种两级火箭，在1969年至1999年期间进行了106次飞行，只有2次失败，这使得它成为有史以来最可靠的火箭之一。

Tsyklon II升空时(来源：ROSCOSMOS)

There was also a three-stage version of the Tsyklon-2 – the Tsyklon-3. The thiRD stage had a small hypergolic open cycle engine, the RD-861, which had a single combustion chamber with four vernier nozzles. Those vernier nozzles were fed from the gas generator exhaust.

还有一个三级版的Tsyklon-2-Tsyklon-3。第三级有一个小型的高热能开放循环发动机，RD-861，它有一个带有四个游标喷嘴的单一燃烧室。这些游标喷嘴由气体发生器的废气供给。

RD-861(Credit: Caspar Stanley)

RD-261, RD-262 引擎

Moreover, the Tsyklon-3 featured an upgraded RD-251, the RD-261/262. This engine could handle a wider range of operating temperatures since it was only used as a space launch rocket. The Tsyklon-3 halted production in 1991 with the collapse of the Soviet Union. However, it was flown until 2009.

此外，Tsyklon-3的特点是升级了RD-251，即RD-261/262。这种发动机可以处理更广泛的工作温度范围，因为它只被用作太空发射火箭。Tsyklon-3在1991年随着苏联的解体而停止了生产。然而，它一直飞行到2009年。

RD-261、RD-262(Credit: Caspar Stanley)

R-36M ROCKET

R-36M 火箭

RD-263, RD-264 引擎

In the 1960s, Yangel and Chelomey started working on new projects that aimed at further development of the ballistic missile program. Yangel proposed a new version, the R-36M. As a result, in 1969, the R-36M project was approved.

20世纪60年代，杨格尔和切洛梅开始研究旨在进一步发展弹道导弹计划的新项目。杨格尔提出了一个新的版本，即R-36M。结果，在1969年，R-36M项目被批准。

一枚R-36M在从导弹发射井中发射时(来源: ROSCOSMOS)

The first stage of the R-36M rocket used four single-chambered RD-263 engines that formed one RD-264 engine. These were closed cycle oxidizer-rich engines that ran on N2O4/ UDMH. They were able to produce a total thrust of 4,158 kN at sea level, 4,511 kN in a vacuum, with an ISP of 293 s at sea level and of 318 s in a vacuum. 

R-36M火箭的第一级使用四个单室的RD-263发动机，组成一个RD-264发动机。这些是封闭循环的富氧化剂发动机，以N2O4/UDMH为燃料。它们能够在海平面产生4158千牛的总推力，在真空中产生4511千牛的总推力，在海平面的ISP为293秒，在真空中为318秒。

Interestingly, the RD-263/264 engines had pretty large combustion chambers. In fact, they were so large that it caused problems with combustion instability. Instead of splitting it up into multiple combustion chambers, the engineers divided the injector face using dividers.

有趣的是，RD-263/264发动机有相当大的燃烧室。事实上，它们是如此之大，以至于造成了燃烧不稳定的问题。工程师们没有将其分割成多个燃烧室，而是使用分隔器将喷油器面分割。

RD-264(Credit: Caspar Stanley)

Overall, the RD-200 series proved hypergolic fuels to be useful and this knowledge came in handy for the next family of rockets, the Proton.

总的来说，RD-200系列证明了高炉燃料是有用的，这些知识对下一个火箭家族--质子号--很有帮助。

5、Universal Family Of Rockets 

通用型火箭家族

Meanwhile, Vladimir Chelomey, Chief designer of the OKB-52, had a plan to develop the universal rocket family, known as the UR series. Chelomey’s idea was to have a large number of relatively cheap UR-100 missiles that had a simple design. MR-UR-100 and UR-100N projects were approved and were being developed, but on a competitive basis against the R-36M.

与此同时，OKB-52的总设计师弗拉基米尔-切洛梅有一个发展通用火箭家族的计划，被称为UR系列。切洛梅的想法是拥有大量相对便宜的UR-100导弹，其设计简单。MR-UR-100和UR-100N项目被批准并正在开发中，但要在与R-36M竞争的基础上。

通用型火箭家族 (Credit: Everyday Astronaut)

MR-UR-100 ROCKET

MR-UR-100 火箭

RD-268 引擎

For the MR-UR-100, Chelomey developed the RD-268, which was an upgraded version of the RD-263 and had slightly higher performance. Compared to the RD-263, the RD-268 did not have problems with combustion instability and did not require the dividers at the injector face. However, they remained inside the engine anyway. It had a thrust of 1,149 kN at sea level with an ISP of 296 s, and 1,239 kN in a vacuum with an ISP of 319 s. Unlike the RD-263, the RD-268 engine was fixed. The RD-263 engine could gimbal seven degrees.

对于MR-UR-100，切洛米公司开发了RD-268，它是RD-263的升级版，性能略高。与RD-263相比，RD-268没有燃烧不稳定的问题，也不需要在喷油器表面设置分压器。然而，它们还是留在了发动机内部。它在海平面上的推力为1149千牛，ISP为296秒，在真空中的推力为1239千牛，ISP为319秒，与RD-263不同，RD-268发动机是固定的。RD-263发动机可以有7度的万向节。

RD-268(Credit: Caspar Stanley)

UR-200 ROCKET

UR-200 火箭

RD-0202, RD-0203, RD-0204 引擎

Chelomey also developed a larger rocket, the UR-200. For that, he turned to the OKB-154 to work on a closed cycle hypergolic engine, blending the S1.5400 and the RD-250. This is how they developed and built the RD-0202. Moreover, they hoped to use this engine across his entire lineup of universal rockets.

The RD-0202 consisted of three RD-0203 and one RD-0204, which included a heat exchanger to pressurize the fuel tanks. Although the RD-0XXX series tends to work on the upper stages, the RD-0202 was a sea level engine.

切洛梅还开发了一个更大的火箭，UR-200。为此，他求助于OKB-154，研究闭合循环的高炉发动机，把S1.5400和RD-250混合起来。这就是他们开发和制造RD-0202的过程。此外，他们希望在他的整个通用火箭阵容中使用这种发动机。

RD-0202由三个RD-0203和一个RD-0204组成，其中包括一个热交换器来给燃料箱加压。虽然RD-0XXX系列倾向于在上面级工作，但RD-0202是一个海平面发动机。

RD-0202、RD-0203、RD-0204(Credit: Caspar Stanley)

RD-0205, RD-0206, RD-0207 引擎

In addition, they built a vacuum optimized version of the RD-0202 – the RD-0205. It was a single RD-0206 based on the RD-0204, with an auxiliary vernier steering engine – the RD-0207.

The UR-200 only saw a few test launches, but the RD-0205 would wind up on the second stage of Chelomey’s next rocket, the UR-500. Originally, they designed this rocket to be an intercontinental ballistic missile capable of delivering 50-100 megaton warheads.

此外，他们还制造了RD-0202的真空优化版本--RD-0205。这是一个以RD-0204为基础的单体RD-0206，带有一个辅助游标转向发动机--RD-0207。

UR-200只进行了几次试验性发射，但RD-0205将出现在切洛米公司的下一个火箭--UR-500的第二级。最初，他们把这枚火箭设计成洲际弹道导弹，能够发射50-100百万吨当量的H弹头。

RD-0205(Credit: Caspar Stanley)

UR-500 ROCKET

UR-500 火箭

RD-253 引擎

For the UR-500 rocket, Chelomey and Glushko needed a closed cycle engine, more powerful than the RD-0202. As a result, they developed the RD-253 engine which was a huge leap forwaRD in performance. For instance, it reached a recoRD setting 147 bar in its main combustion chamber. This engine was capable of producing a thrust of 1,470 kN at sea level and 1,630 kN in a vacuum, with an ISP of 285 s at sea level and of 316 s in a vacuum. Moreover, it had an extremely high thrust-to-weight ratio.

对于UR-500火箭，切洛梅和格鲁什科需要一个封闭式循环发动机，比RD-0202更强大。因此，他们开发了RD-253发动机，在性能上有了巨大的飞跃。例如，它的主燃烧室达到了创纪录的147巴。该发动机能够在海平面产生1470千牛的推力，在真空中产生1630千牛的推力，海平面的ISP为285秒，真空中为316秒。此外，它有一个极高的推重比。

RD-253 (Credit: Caspar Stanley)

Fun fact, the RD-253 started development while the RD-250 was on the test stand right next to it at OKB-456 in 1964. They would take lessons learned from the troubled RD-250 to make the RD-253, getting it certified in a hurry.

有趣的是，1964年，当RD-250在OKB-456的试验台上时，RD-253就开始研制了。他们将从陷入困境的RD-250中吸取经验教训来制造RD-253，并迅速使其获得认证。

PROTON

质子号

RD-253 On The Proton Rocket

质子号火箭上的RD-253

As a result, the RD-253 successfully flew on the first Proton on July 16, 1965. Then, it continued flying as either an upgraded RD-253F or RD-255 for a total of 314 times until its last launch on a Proton-K in 2012.

因此，RD-253于1965年7月16日在第一枚质子号上成功飞行。然后，它作为升级版的RD-253F或RD-255继续飞行，共计314次，直到2012年最后一次在质子-K上发射。

质子M的首飞升空(来源: ROSCOSMOS)

First Stage of Proton

质子号的第一级

RD-275, RD-275M 引擎

In 1995, the Proton saw an upgraded engine, the RD-275. They increased the chamber pressure to an impressive 157 bar. In turn, this raised its thrust to 1,590 kN at sea level and 1,744 in a vacuum, with its efficiency going up to 287 s at sea level and 316 s in a vacuum.

After that, in 2007, the RD-275 had another upgrade – the RD-275M, also known as the RD-276. The maiden flight of this engine was on the Proton-M. This engine again featured higher chamber pressure up to 165 bar. This allowed it to hit 1,672 kN of thrust at sea level and 1,832 kN in a vacuum, with an ISP of 288 s at sea level and 316 s in a vacuum.

1995年，质子号出现了一个升级版的发动机，即RD-275。他们将腔内压力提高到令人印象深刻的157巴。反过来，这使其推力在海平面上提高到1590千牛，在真空中提高到1744千牛，其效率在海平面提高到287秒，在真空中提高到316秒。

此后，在2007年，RD-275又进行了一次升级--RD-275M，也被称为RD-276。这种发动机的首飞是在质子-M上进行的。该发动机再次具有更高的室压，达到165巴。这使得它在海平面上可以达到1672千牛的推力，在真空中可以达到1832千牛，海平面上的ISP为288秒，真空中为316秒。

RD-275、RD-275M(Credit: Caspar Stanley)

Unlike the four side boosters on Soyuz 2 rockets, the ones on Proton-M are not detachable. One interesting fact about the Proton-M rocket is that its design was greatly affected by the logistics. For example, the diameter of its oxidizer tank is the maximum that can be delivered to the pad by rail.

The first stage of the Proton consists of a central cylindrical part, which is an oxidizer tank, and six side fuel tanks. This way all engines were connected directly to the fuel and oxidizer tanks, with no need for any pipes through one of the tanks.

与联盟2号火箭的四个侧面助推器不同，质子-M火箭的助推器是不可拆分的。关于质子-M火箭的一个有趣的事实是，它的设计受到物流的极大影响。例如，其氧化剂罐的直径是可以通过铁路运送到停机坪的最大直径。

质子号的第一级由一个中央圆柱形部分组成，这是一个氧化剂箱，和六个侧面的燃料箱。这样所有的发动机都直接与燃料箱和氧化剂箱相连，不需要任何管道穿过其中的一个箱体。

Second Stage of Proton

质子号的第二级

RD-0208/9, RD-0210/11 引擎

The second stage of the Proton was originally going to use a vacuum optimized version of the RD-0203/4 – the RD-0208/9. However, as they continued to develop and grow the UR-500, they created a set of new engines, the RD-0210 and RD-0211. Just like the other clusters of engines, there were three RD-0210s and one RD-0211 with a heat exchanger.

质子号的第二级原本打算使用RD-0203/4的真空优化版本--RD-0208/9。然而，随着他们继续发展和壮大UR-500，他们创造了一组新的发动机，即RD-0210和RD-0211。就像其他的发动机群一样，有三个RD-0210和一个带热交换器的RD-0211。

RD-208、RD-209、RD-210、RD-211(Credit: Caspar Stanley)

ThiRD Stage of Proton

质子号第三级

RD-0212, RD-0213, RD-0214 引擎

A thiRD stage of the Proton featured an upgraded version of the RD-0205 – the RD-0212. This engine consisted of the RD-0213 main engine and four RD-0214 vernier steering engines.

质子号的第三级采用了RD-0205的升级版--RD-0212。该发动机由RD-0213主发动机和四个RD-0214游标转向发动机组成。

RD-212、RD-213 (Credit: Caspar Stanley)

Fourth Stage of Proton

质子号第四级

RD-58, RD-58M, RD-58S, RD-58MF 引擎 

Normally, the first stages of rockets run on LOx since it boils off so easily and the upper stages tend to work on hypergolic propellants. However, it was opposite for the fourth stage of the Proton-K and M, which ran on keralox. Despite boil off issues, this stage (Block D) has done 24 hour long missions.

The engine that powered that stage was the RD-58, a direct descendant of the S1.5400. Although it did not see its intended use as a lunar braking stage for the N1 moon rocket, it found itself on the Proton rocket in 1967. There were also upgraded versions of the RD-58: the RD-58M, RD-58S, and RD-58MF. The latter powers the fourth stage on the Proton-M and has an impressive ISP of 372 s. Meanwhile, the RD-58S runs on Syntin and powers the fourth stage on the Proton-K.

通常情况下，火箭的第一级使用氧基燃料，因为它很容易沸腾，而末级则倾向于使用双酚类推进剂。然而，质子-K和M的第四级却恰恰相反，它使用的是液氧煤油。尽管有沸腾的问题，这个级（D块）已经完成了24小时的任务。

为该级提供动力的发动机是RD-58，是S1.5400的直接后裔。虽然它没有被用作N1月球火箭的月球制动级，但它在1967年发现自己在质子火箭上。还有RD-58的升级版：RD-58M、RD-58S和RD-58MF。后者为质子-M的第四级提供动力，具有令人印象深刻的372秒的ISP。同时，RD-58S在Syntin上运行，为质子-K的第四级提供动力。

RD-58、RD-58M、RD-58S、RD-58MF

S5.98M 引擎

Moreover, there were the Briz-M and Briz-K hypergolic fourth stages that did not fly until 1999. These upper stages featured the S5.98M gas generator engine, capable of producing 19.6 kN of thrust and sibling to the S5.92 on the Fregat.

此外，还有Briz-M和Briz-K高能级第四级，直到1999年才飞起来。这些末级采用了S5.98M气体发生器发动机，能够产生19.6千牛的推力，与 "自由女神 "上的S5.92发动机是同胞兄弟。

S5.98M(Credit: Caspar Stanley)

UR-700 ROCKET

UR-700 火箭

RD-270 引擎

There was one more engine that Glushko and Chelomei worked on for the UR-700 and UR-900 rockets that they originally were pushing instead of the N-1. The development of the RD-270 began in 1962. They took a lot of lessons learned from the RD-263/264 to make the RD-270.

This engine was a full flow staged combustion cycle engine, much like SpaceX’s Raptor engine. It would be the most powerful single chamber engine the Soviet Union ever built. In addition, it came very close to the F-1 engine that the US built for the Saturn V. It reached a thrust of 6,272 kN at sea level (ISP of 301 s) and 6,713 kN in a vacuum (ISP of 322 s). For comparison, the F-1 only achieved 263 s at sea level and 304 s in a vacuum. However, the F-1 was 15% more powerful than the RD-270 (6,770 kN at sea level and 7,700 kN in a vacuum).

格鲁什科和切洛梅还为UR-700和UR-900火箭研究了一个发动机，他们原来是要推动N-1的。RD-270的开发是在1962年开始的。他们从RD-263/264中吸取了很多教训来制造RD-270。

该发动机是一个全流式分段燃烧循环发动机，很像SpaceX的猛禽发动机。它将是苏联有史以来制造的最强大的单室发动机。此外，它非常接近美国为土星五号建造的F-1发动机。它在海平面达到6272千牛的推力（ISP为301秒），在真空中达到6713千牛（ISP为322秒）。作为比较，F-1在海平面上只达到263秒，在真空中达到304秒。然而，F-1比RD-270强大15%（海平面6770千牛，真空中7700千牛）。

RD-270 (Credit: Caspar Stanley)

They test fired the RD-270 27 times, with one engine even seeing three fully successful full duration fires between 1967 and 1969. Moreover, they were developing the RD-270M version that ran on pentaborane, which was 15% more efficient. The RD-270 would have been the ultimate engine, and would likely still be today. Unfortunately, the engine was cancelled alongside the UR-700 when the N1 was chosen as the Soviet’s Moon rocket.

他们对RD-270进行了27次试射，其中一台发动机甚至在1967年和1969年之间进行了三次完全成功的全时发射。此外，他们正在开发RD-270M版本，该版本使用戊**，效率提高15%。RD-270本来是终极发动机，而且今天可能仍然是。不幸的是，当N1火箭被选为苏联的登月火箭时，该发动机与UR-700一起被取消了。

6、N1 Rocket Engines N1火箭引擎

BLOCK A OF N1

N1的A区块

NK-9 引擎

For the N1 moon rocket, Korolev had to design a powerful engine that would work on keralox and lift a rocket with a mass of almost 3 million kg. For that, he turned to the aircraft engine design bureau OKB-276 and its head Nikolai Kuznetsov. As a result, they developed the NK-9, an oxygen-rich closed cycle engine. After that, it became the basis for an upgraded version, the NK-15.

为了N1月球火箭，科罗廖夫必须设计一个强大的发动机，它可以在液氧煤油环境中工作，并提升一个质量近300万公斤的火箭。为此，他求助于航空发动机设计局OKB-276和其负责人尼古拉-库兹涅佐夫。结果，他们开发了NK-9，一种富氧封闭循环发动机。此后，它成为升级版NK-15的基础。

NK-9 (Credit: Caspar Stanley)

NK-15 引擎

The NK-15 achieved the thrust numbers necessary for the massive 17 m wide first stage booster – Block A. Block A featured 30 NK-15s, with 24 engines around the outer perimeter and 6 more on an inner ring. Each one of those engines could achieve 1,526 kN of thrust. Overall, 30 NK-15s offered 45 MN of thrust, about 30% more than the Saturn V’s 35 MN.

NK-15实现了巨大的17米宽的第一级助推器--A组所需的推力。A组有30台NK-15，其中24台发动机在外周，另外6台在内环。这些发动机中的每一个都可以达到1526千牛的推力。总的来说，30台NK-15提供45兆牛的推力，比土星五号的35兆牛多30%。

N1起飞(Credit: ROSCOSMOS)

The engines steered the rocket via thrust differential and not through engine gimballing. Basically, in this scheme, the engines can provide more or less thrust on one side of the rocket to steer where it is going. It is a complex control scheme that relies on advanced flight computers, something that the Soviet Union did not have in the late 1960s. Alongside the rest of the avionics, their primitive KORD computer could not manage 30 engines that had very little testing. In addition, the NK-15 had many pyrotechnic valves in oRDer to save weight and complexity. In other woRDs, once they fired, they could not be re-fired.

发动机通过推力差来引导火箭，而不是通过发动机的万向节。基本上，在这个方案中，发动机可以在火箭的一侧提供更多或更少的推力来引导火箭的走向。这是一个复杂的控制方案，依赖于先进的飞行计算机，这是苏联在60年代末没有的东西。与其他航空电子设备一起，他们原始的KORD计算机无法管理30个测试很少的发动机。此外，NK-15有许多烟火阀门，以节省重量和复杂性。换句话说，一旦它们发射，就不能再次点火了。

NK-15(Credit: Caspar Stanley)

These flaws led to only about 1 in every 6 engines actually being tested before flights. Moreover, with none of the tested engines being put on the rocket, they were just a way to validate manufacturing and ensure there were no big flaws with the batches of engines.

Overall, there were four failed launch attempts, none of them made it through the first stage burn. However, the actual haRDware of this rocket directly lives on until today.

这些缺陷导致每6台发动机中只有1台在飞行前被实际测试。此外，由于没有一个经过测试的发动机被放在火箭上，它们只是验证制造的一种方式，确保这批发动机没有大的缺陷。

总的来说，有四次失败的发射尝试，其中没有一次能通过第一级燃烧。然而，这枚火箭的实际硬件直接活到了今天。

NK-33 引擎

Before the N1 got cancelled there was an upgraded first stage engine in the works. The NK-33 featured simplified pneumatic and hydraulic systems that allowed to test and re-fire the engines. In addition, it had more advanced controls, upgrades to the turbo pumps and to the combustion chamber.

Moreover, there was also a vacuum optimized version of this engine, the NK-43. Even though it could reach 1,757 kN of thrust and had an ISP of 346 s, it never flew.

在N1被取消之前，有一个升级的第一级发动机正在研制中。NK-33的特点是简化了气动和液压系统，可以测试和重新点燃发动机。此外，它有更先进的控制装置，对涡轮泵和燃烧室进行了升级。

此外，该发动机还有一个真空优化版本，即NK-43。尽管它的推力可以达到1,757千牛，ISP为346秒，但它从未飞过。

NK-33 (Credit: Caspar Stanley)

Luckily, the same fate was not true for the NK-33. Glushko, who at that moment was the head of the Soviet Space Industry, wanted to scrap all the engines and the two unflown N1s. However, he was not Kuznetsov’s direct boss and Kuznetsov chose to ignore his oRDers. Kuznetsov then secretly took about 80 completed NK-33s to a warehouse. They remained there for nearly 30 years until the collapse of the Soviet Union. Eventually, rumours of the engine’s existence and capabilities reached the United States. US engineers could not believe the performance numbers of these engines. Fortunately for the former Soviet engineers, they got the chance to show their work off the rest of the world.

They shipped an NK-33 to the United States in the early 90’s so Aerojet could put it through its paces. The old engines still performed exactly as designed!

幸运的是，NK-33的命运并非如此。格鲁什科当时是苏联航天工业的负责人，他想报废所有的发动机和两个未飞行的N1。然而，他不是库兹涅佐夫的直接上司，库兹涅佐夫选择无视他的命令。随后，库兹涅佐夫秘密地将大约80架完成的NK-33带到一个仓库。它们在那里停留了近30年，直到苏联解体。最终，关于该发动机的存在和能力的谣言传到了美国。美国工程师无法相信这些发动机的性能数字。幸运的是，前苏联的工程师们有机会向世界其他国家展示他们的工作。

90年代初，他们将一台NK-33运到了美国，这样Aerojet公司就可以对其进行测试。这个老式发动机的性能仍然与设计完全一致。

NK-33 on the Antares rocket

安塔瑞斯火箭上的NK-33 引擎

Despite being test fired in 1995, it saw its first flight only on April 21, 2013, in the United States. The first rocket to utilize the Soviet NK-33 in flight was the Antares rocket.

Aerojet refurbished NK-33s and created a version called the AJ-26. This version had a few control changes and slightly upgraded maximum throttle settings. It went on to fly 4 times successfully on Antares. However, on the 5th flight on October 28, 2014, for NASA CRS Orb-3, it experienced a failure only a few seconds into flight. The LOx turbopump exploded and led to a fire and complete loss of power, resulting in the rocket falling right back onto the launch pad. This led Orbital Sciences, now Northrop Grumman, to look for a more reliable replacement for their Antares rockets. From all options, they chose another high performance Russian engine, the RD-181.

尽管在1995年就进行了试射，但它在2013年4月21日才在美国进行了首次飞行。第一个利用苏联NK-33进行飞行的火箭是安塔瑞斯火箭。

Aerojet公司翻新了NK-33，并创造了一个名为AJ-26的版本。这个版本有一些控制方面的变化，最大油门设置略有升级。它在安塔斯火箭上成功飞行了4次。然而，在2014年10月28日为美国国家航空航天局CRS Orb-3进行的第5次飞行中，它在飞行几秒钟后就出现了故障。LOx涡轮泵爆炸并导致火灾和完全失去动力，导致火箭直接掉到发射台上。这导致轨道科学公司，即现在的诺斯罗普-格鲁曼公司，为他们的安塔瑞斯火箭寻找一个更可靠的替代品。从所有的选择中，他们选择了另一种高性能的俄罗斯发动机，RD-181。

AJ-26(Credit: Caspar Stanley)

BLOCK B OF N1

N1的B区块

NK-15V 引擎

The second stage, or Block B, featured 8 vacuum optimized versions of the NK-15 – the NK-15V. This engine had an extended nozzle and air-start capabilities and could hit 1,758 kN of thrust in a vacuum, with an ISP of 325 s.

第二级，即B组，有8个NK-15的真空优化版本 - NK-15V。这种发动机有一个扩展的喷嘴和空气启动能力，可以在真空中达到1,758千牛的推力，ISP为325秒。

NK-15V(Credit: Caspar Stanley)

BLOCK V OF N1

N1的V区块

NK-19 引擎

The thiRD stage, or Block V, used 4 NK-19s, each with about 450 kN of thrust and 346 s of ISP. These were direct descendants of the NK-9 that Korolev and Kutnezov initially developed.

第三级，即第五组，使用4个NK-19，每个推力约450千牛，ISP为346秒。这些是科罗廖夫和库特涅佐夫最初开发的NK-9的直接后代。

NK-19(Credit: Caspar Stanley)

BLOCK G OF N1

N1的G区块

NK-21 引擎

Lastly, there was the fourth stage or Block G that was to perform the translunar injection. This stage featured a single NK-21, which again was a direct descendant of the NK-9. It had about 392 kN of thrust and 346 s of ISP. All of the engines on this rocket ran on keralox.

最后是第四阶段，即G区，用于进行平流层注射。这一级有一个NK-21，它也是NK-9的直接后代。它有大约392千牛的推力和346秒的ISP。这枚火箭上的所有发动机都使用液氧煤油。

NK-21(Credit: Caspar Stanley)

BLOCK D OF N1

N1的D区块

RD-58 引擎

Finally, there was the RD-58 on the Block D – the final stage that was intended to be a lunar braking engine. This is similar to the US’ Apollo service module that was used to slow the vehicle down and place it into lunar orbit.

最后是D组的RD-58--最后一级，打算作为月球制动发动机。这类似于美国的阿波罗服务舱，用于减缓飞行器的速度并将其放入月球轨道。

RD-58(Credit: Caspar Stanley)

N1F AND N1M VARIANTS

N1F 和 N1M 的变体

RD-56, RD-57

Moreover, there were a lot of upgrades in the works for different future N1 variants – the N1F and N1M. However, these plans were later abandoned due to the launch failures of the original N1s. Despite that, many engines were fully developed, including high performance hydrolox upper stage engines: the RD-56 and the RD-57.

此外，还有很多为未来不同的N1变种--N1F和N1M的升级工作。然而，这些计划后来由于原始N1的发射失败而被放弃。尽管如此，许多发动机还是得到了充分的发展，包括高性能的氢氧体上面级发动机：RD-56和RD-57。

RD-56、RD-57(Credit: Caspar Stanley)

Those were the first hydrolox engines to be built in the Soviet Union. The RD-57 could reach 392 kN of thrust with an ISP of 457 s in a vacuum. The RD-56 was developed around the same time, was much smaller, and offered 70 kN of thrust and an ISP of 462 s.

这些是苏联制造的第一批氢氧体发动机。RD-57在真空中可以达到392千牛的推力，ISP为457秒。RD-56也是在同一时期开发的，它要小得多，推力为70千牛，ISP为462秒。

中篇完，下篇将介绍：

本文许可CC BY-NC-SA 4.0协议(creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.zh)

翻译：天外飞舰

原文作者：Everyday Astronaut

原文标题：Soviet Rocket Engines

文章英文原版：

https://everydayastronaut.com/soviet-rocket-engines/

由于原版文章近5万字过长，因而分3篇。

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